M. Ahaniyan

''' The Comparative Study about the Effects of Input-based Instruction and Output-based Instruction in EFL Iranian learners on the Acquisition of Passive Sentences in English grammar. '''

                                                              Student: Marjan Ahaniyan

                                                                 Professor: Dr. Ahmadi Islamic Azad University of Hamedan

Abstract: 

The aim of the present paper is to investigate the effects of processing instruction and output instruction on Iranian EFL learners on acquisition passive sentences in grammar. Fifty participants who were selected out of Intermediate EFL learners, taking English courses in a language institute in Tehran-Iran, participated in this quasi-experimental study. All the participants were female with the age range of 18-30. The participants were randomly assigned into two experimental groups of Processing instruction (Input) and Output instruction. Two different instructional packages were used in passive grammar were employed as pre-test and post-test in this study.

The results revealed that although both instructions had positive effects on Iranian EFL learners’ ability for using passive grammar in their writing or speaking sentences. Output-based instruction group performed slightly better than input-based instruction. Some pedagogical implications of the findings were presented. The results might be helpful in syllabus design and teaching methodology.





Keywords:    <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">processing instruction, output instruction, grammar instruction, passive voice, EFL learners

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-outline-level: 4; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Introduction 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Theories of second-language acquisition are various <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> theories<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> and <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> hypotheses<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> in the field of <span id="cke_bm_62S" style="display: none;">    <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> second-language    <span id="cke_bm_62E" style="display: none;">  acquisition<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> about how people learn a <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> second language<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">. <span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Nobody denies the essential role that input plays in L2 acquisition. In addition to the role of input, output has also been recognized to play a crucial role in the process of L2 acquisition.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">When learners come into direct contact with the target language, this is referred to as “input”. And when learners process that language in a way that can contribute to learning, this is referred to as “intake”. Stephen Krashen in 1982 proposes language acquisition takes place only when learners receive input just beyond their current level of L2 competence. He terms this level of input “i+1” that is named comprehensible input (CI).

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In 1958 Merrill Swain advanced the output hypothesis, that meaningful output is as necessary to language learning as meaningful input. Also comprehensible output (CO) developed by her, that states learning takes place when encountering a gap in the linguistic knowledge of the L2. By “noticing” this gap the learner becomes aware of it and might be able to modify his/her output so that he/she learners something new about the language.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Stephen Krashen in 1994 argues that output is rare, and comprehensible output is even rare. And another difficulty with CO is that pushing students to speak in a second language may be uncomfortable for them because causing them the most anxiety in the class. The comprehensible output theory is closely related to the need hypothesis and according to Krashen, the Need Hypothesis is incorrect. Actually he said need is useless in the absence of Comprehensible Input.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Passive voice verbs are used in writing much more often than in speech, and they are used in some types of writing much more often than in others. Passives are used more in journalism (newspapers, magazines) than in fiction (novels, stories), but most journalists and fiction writers use far more active than passive sentences. However, passives are very common in all types of scientific and technical writing. Scientific articles often contain more passive than active sentences. We should not use passive voice verbs unless we have a good reason.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In this paper, we have tried to investigate the effects of input and output on the passive voice in English grammar on EFL learners in Iran. Then Independent variable is Input criteria and Output criteria and dependent variable is grammar that is different in these two groups. <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Review of Related Literature 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The role of input and output instruction in teaching of grammar has long been questioned. As Rutherford (1987, cited in Celce-Murcia, 1991) points out, for 2500 years the teaching of grammar had often been synonymous with foreign language teaching. The role of grammar has, however, generated a great debate in L2 teaching for more than 40 years (Ellis, 2001). During the past decades grammar has moved from a position of central importance in language teaching to unvalued stage, and back to a position of renewed importance (Celce-Murcia, 1991).

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Theories of second- language acquisition: 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Theories of second-language acquisition are various theories and hypotheses about how people learn a second language.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Input hypothesis, Output hypothesis, Monitor hypothesis, Affective filter hypothesis, Acquisition/Learning hypothesis, Natural order hypothesis, Interaction hypothesis, Noticing hypothesis, Information processing theory and… are included in.

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<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Krashen’s Five Hypotheses 

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">There are five key hypotheses about second language acquisition:

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8;"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin;"> 1.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">      <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: 

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Stephen Krashen in 1982<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> introduced the acquisition-learning hypothesis, which makes a distinction between conscious language learning and subconscious language acquisition.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Krashen argues that only subconscious acquisition can lead to fluency. A distinction closely related to that made by Krashen between acquisition and learning is one between implicit and explicit linguistic knowledge. Learners gain implicit knowledge by processing target-language input without consciously giving attention to acquiring the forms and structures of the language.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">On the other hand, learners get explicit knowledge of a language when they process language input with the conscious intention of discovering the structural rules of the language. A distinction between the implicit learning involved in acquiring a first language (L1) and the mix of implicit and explicit learning that takes place in L2 acquisition has been an analytic route for understanding the virtually universal success of L1 acquisition versus the more limited success of L2 acquisition among adult learners (Hulstijn, 2005). Ellis has found empirical confirmation for the distinct constructs of implicit and explicit language knowledge.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Adults have two different ways to develop competence in a language: language acquisition and language learning. Language acquisition is a subconscious process not unlike the way a child learns language. Language acquirers are not consciously aware of the grammatical rules of the language, but rather develop a "feel" for correctness. "In non-technical language, acquisition is 'picking-up' a language."<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Language learning, on the other hand, refers to the "concious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them." Thus language learning can be compared to learning about a language.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">The acquistion-learning disctinction hypothesis claims that adults do not lose the ability to acquire languages the way that children do. Just as research shows that error correction has little effect on children learning a first language, so too error correction has little affect on language acquisition.

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8;"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin;"> 2.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">      <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Natural-Order Hypothesis: 

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The natural order hypothesis states that "the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order." For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early, others late, regardless of the first language of a speaker. However, as will be discussed later on in the book, this does not mean that grammar should be taught in this natural order of acquisition.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8;"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin;"> 3.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">      <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Monitor Hypothesis: 

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The language that one has subconsciously acquired "initiates our utterances in a second language and is responsible for our fluency," whereas the language that we have consciously learned acts as an editor in situations where the learner has enough time to edit, is focused on form, and knows the rule, such as on a grammar test in a language classroom or when carefully writing a composition. This conscious editor is called the Monitor. Different individuals use their monitors in different ways, with different degrees of success. Monitor Over-users try to always use their Monitor, and end up "so concerned with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency." Monitor Under-users either have not consciously learned or choose to not use their conscious knowledge of the language.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Although error correction by others has little influence on them, they can often correct themselves based on a "feel" for correctness. Teachers should aim to produce Optimal Monitor users, who "use the Monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication." They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation, but will use it in writing and planned speech. "Optimal Monitor users can therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired competence."

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8;"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin;"> 4.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">      <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Affective Filter Hypothesis: 

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety all affect language acquisition, in effect raising or lowering the "stickiness" or "penetration" of any comprehensible input that is received.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo8;"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin;"> 5.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">      <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Input Hypothesis: 

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The input hypothesis answers the question of how a language acquirer develops competency over time. It states that a language acquirer who is at "level i" must receive comprehensible input that is at "level i+1."

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">"We acquire, in other words, only when we understand language that contains structure that is 'a little beyond' where we are now." This understanding is possible due to using the context of the language we are hearing or reading and our knowledge of the world. However, instead of aiming to receive input that is exactly at our i+1 level, or instead of having a teacher aim to teach us grammatical structure that is at our i+1 level, we should instead just focus on communication that is understandable. If we do this, and if we get enough of that kind of input, then we will in effect be receiving and thus acquiring out i+1. "Production ability emerges. It is not taught directly."

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the effectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a child, of teacher-talk from a teacher to a language student, and of foreigner-talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language learner/acquirer. One result of this hypothesis is that language students should be given a initial "silent period" where they are building up acquired competence in a language before they begin to produce it. Whenever language acquirers try to produce language beyond what they have acquired, they tend to use the rules they have already acquired from their first language, thus allowing them to communicate but not really progress in the second language.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">These five hypotheses of second language acquisition can be summarized:

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">1. Acquisition is more important than learning.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">2. In order to acquire, two conditions are necessary.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The first is comprehensible (or even better, comprehended) input containing i+1, structures a bit beyond the current level, and second, a low or weak affective filter to allow the input 'in'."

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In view of these findings, question is raised:

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo6;"> ü<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">    <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Does classroom language teaching help? Classroom teaching helps when it provides the necessary comprehensible input to those students who are not at a level yet which allows them to receive comprehensible input from "the real world" or who do not have access to "real world" language speakers. It can also help when it provides students communication tools to make better use of the outside world, and it can provide beneficial conscious learning for optimal Monitor users.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Various research studies have been done comparing the amount of language competence and the amount of exposure to the language either in classroom-years or length of residence, the age of the language acquirer, and the acculturation of the language acquirer. The results of these studies are consistent with the above acquisition hypothesis: the more comprehensible input one receives in low-stress situations, the more language competence that one will have.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Input for Acquisition 

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Once it is realized that receiving comprehensible input is central to acquiring a second language, questions are immediately raised concerning the nature and sources of this type of input and the role of the second language classroom. To what extent is the second language classroom beneficial? Classrooms help when they provide the comprehensible input that the acquirer is going to receive. If acquirers have access to real world input, and if their current ability allows them understand at least some of it, then the classroom is not nearly as significant.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">An informal, immersion environment has the opportunity to provide tons of input; however, that input is not always comprehensible to a beginner, and often for an adult beginner the classroom is better than the real world in providing comprehensible input. However, for the intermediate level student and above, living and interacting in an environment in which the language is spoken will likely prove to be better for the student, especially considering the fact that a language classroom will not be able to reflect the broad range of language use that the real world provides. The classroom's goal is to prepare students to be able to understand the language used outside the classroom.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo6;"> ü<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">    <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">What role does speaking (output) play in second language acquisition? It has no direct role, since language is acquired by comprehensible input, and in fact someone who is not able to speak for physical reasons can still acquire the full ability to understand language. However, speaking does indirectly help in two ways: 1) speaking produces conversation, which produces comprehensible input, and 2) your speaking allows native speakers to judge what level you are at and then adjust their speak downward to you, providing you input that is more easily understood.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; margin-left: 22.5pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo6;"> ü<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">    <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">What kind of input is optimal for acquisition? The best input is comprehensible, which sometimes means that it needs to be slower and more carefully articulated, using common vocabulary, less slang, and shorter sentences. Optimal input is interesting and/or relevant and allows the acquirer to focus on the meaning of the message and not on the form of the message. Optimal input is not grammatically sequenced, and a grammatical syllabus should not be used in the language classroom, in part because all students will not be at exactly the same level and because each structure is often only introduced once before moving on to something else. Finally, optimal input must focus on quantity, although most language teachers have to date seriously underestimated how much comprehensible input is actually needed for an acquirer to progress.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In addition to receiving the right kind of input, students should have their affective filter kept low, meaning that classroom stress should be minimized and students "should not be put on the defensive." One result of this is that student's errors should not be corrected. Students should be taught how to gain more input from the outside world, including helping them acquire conversational competence, the means of managing conversation.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Role of Grammar 

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">"As should be apparent by now, the position taken in this book is that second language teaching should focus on encouraging acquisition, on providing input that stimulates the subconscious language acquisition potential all normal human beings have. This does not mean to say, however, that there is no room at all for conscious learning. Conscious learning does have a role, but it is no longer the lead actor in the play."

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">For starters, we must realize that learning does not turn into acquisition. While the idea that we first learn a grammar rule and then use it so much that it becomes internalized is common and may seem obvious to many, it is not supported by theory nor by the observation of second language acquirers, who often correctly use "rules" they have never been taught and don't even remember accurately the rules they have learned.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">However, there is a place for grammar, or the conscious learning of the rules of a language. Its major role is in the use of the Monitor, which allows Monitor users to produce more correct output when they are given the right conditions to actually use their Monitor, as in some planned speech and writing. However, for correct Monitor use the users must know the rules they are applying, and these would need to be rules that are easy to remember and apply--a very small subset of all of the grammatical rules of a language. It is not worthwhile for language acquisition to teach difficult rules which are hard to learn, harder to remember, and sometimes almost impossible to correctly apply.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">For many years there was controversy in language-teaching literature on whether grammar should be deductively or inductively taught. However, as both of these methods involve language learning and not language acquisition. This issue should not be central for language teaching practice. There has similarly been controversy as to whether or not errors should be corrected in language learners' speech. Second language acquisition theory suggests that errors in ordinary conversation and Monitor-free situations should not be corrected, and that errors should only be corrected when they apply to easy to apply and understand grammatical rules in situations where known Monitor-users are able to use their Monitor.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">There is a second way in which the teaching of grammar in a classroom can be helpful, and that is when the students are interested in learning about the language they are acquiring. This language appreciation, or linguistics, however, will only result in language acquisition when grammar is taught in the language that is being acquired, and it is actually the comprehensible input that the students are receiving, not the content of the lecture itself, that is aiding acquisition.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">"This is a subtle point. In effect, both teachers and students are deceiving themselves. They believe that it is the subject matter itself, the study of grammar, that is responsible for the students' progress in second language acquisition, but in reality their progress is coming from the medium and not the message. And subject matter that held their interest would do just as well, so far as second language acquisition is concerned, as long as it required extensive use of the target language." And perhaps many students would be more interested in a different subject matter and would thus acquire more than they would in such a grammar-based classroom.

The Interaction Hypothesis
<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Interaction hypothesis is a <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> theory<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> of <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> second-language acquisition<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> which states that the development of <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> language proficiency<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> is promoted by face-to-face interaction and <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> communication<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">. The idea existed in the 1980s, but is usually credited to <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Michael Long<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> for his 1996 paper the role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. There are two forms of the Interaction Hypothesis: the "strong" form and the "weak" form. The "strong" form is the position that the interaction itself contributes to language development. The "weak" form is the position that interaction is simply the way that learners find learning opportunities, whether or not they make productive use of them.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Similarly to <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Krashen<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">'s <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> input hypothesis<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">, the interaction hypothesis claims that <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> comprehensible input<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> is important for language learning. In addition, it claims that the effectiveness of comprehensible input is greatly increased when learners have to negotiate for <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> meaning<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">. This occurs when there is a breakdown in communication which interlocutors attempt to overcome. One of the participants in a <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> conversation<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> will say something that the other does not understand; the participants will then use various <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> communicative strategies<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> to help the interaction progress. The strategies used when negotiating meaning may include slowing down speech, speaking more deliberately, requests for clarification or repair of speech, or <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> paraphrases<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">. Interactions often result in learners receiving <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> negative evidence<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">. That is, if learners say something that their interlocutors do not understand, after negotiation the interlocutors may model the correct language form. In doing this, learners can receive <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> feedback<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> on their <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> production<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> and on <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> grammar<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> that they have not yet mastered. The process of interaction may also result in learners receiving more input from their interlocutors than they would otherwise.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Furthermore, if learners stop to clarify things that they do not understand, they may have more time to <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> process<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> the input they receive. This can lead to better understanding and possibly the acquisition of new language forms. Finally, interactions may serve as a way of focusing learners' <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> attention<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> on a difference between their knowledge of the <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> target language<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> and the reality of what they are hearing; it may also focus their attention on a part of the target language of which they are not yet aware.

Connectionism and second-language acquisition
<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Connectionism attempts to model the cognitive language processing of the human brain, using computer architectures that make associations between elements of language, based on frequency of co-occurrence in the language input. Connectionism denies both innate rules and the existence of any innate language-learning module, L2 input is of greater importance than it is in processing models based on innate approaches, since, in connectionism, input is the source of both the units and the rules of language.

Noticing hypothesis
<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Attention is another characteristic that some believe to have a role in determining the success or failure of language processing. Schmidt states that although explicit metalinguistic knowledge of a language is not always essential for acquisition, the learner must be aware of L2 input in order to gain from it. In his “noticing hypothesis,” Schmidt posits that learners must notice the ways in which their interlanguage structures differ from target norms. This noticing of the gap allows the learner’s internal language processing to restructure the learner’s internal representation of the rules of the L2 in order to bring the learner’s production closer to the target. In this respect, Schmidt’s understanding is consistent with the ongoing process of rule formation found in emergentism and connectionism.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="padding: 0in; border: 1pt windowtext; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in;">Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) Theory <span style="padding: 0in; border: 1pt windowtext; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in;">:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="padding: 0in; border: 1pt windowtext; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in;">Explain human learning as the development of networked memory structures. The human brain is seen as a neural computer of sorts as opposed to the "black box" of Behaviourism. Declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge is all stored in the brain. Problem solving depends on two key factors: information processing capability and stored information. <span style="padding: 0in; border: 1pt windowtext; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 8pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in;"> <span style="padding: 0in; border: 1pt windowtext; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in;">In this case the human brain – to process information. <span dir="RTL" lang="FA" style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-language: FA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; vertical-align: baseline; mso-outline-level: 3;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Information Management 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.25in; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The inputs provided to the system arrive via the five senses – touch, smell, hearing, sight and taste – and are then processed. The CIP Theory supposes that there are a series of "executive processes" ===<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Two way flow of information processing: === <p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">It is bottom-up processing (processing from the 'down points' – our senses) or top-down processing (information previously stored in our memories) we try to make sense of the world around us on a continual basis. ====<span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 200%; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin;"> A.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">     <span style="padding: 0in; border: 1pt windowtext; color: windowtext; line-height: 200%; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in;">Dual Memory or Two Store Model ==== <p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0pt;"><span style="padding: 0in; border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in;">One way of viewing the Memory modes is to think of it as a 'Dual Memory' model. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> To draw on the computer analogy, there is RAM [short term (STM) or working memory (WM)] and a Hard Drive [long term memory (LTM)]. Sensory information is received and enters the short term memory where it may or may not be transfer to long term memory. The cerebral CPU (control/executive processes unit) helps mediate movement of information between the two "memory banks". Information received in STM is rehearsed and can transfer to LTM. WM has a limited duration and capacity which can be expanded by chunking. Approximately 4 (Cowan) to 7 (Miller) pieces of information can be held in STM. Beyond that, "cognitive load" is exceeded and the information does not stick. "Chunking", by combining smaller elements of information into larger consolidated pieces, expands the actual capacity of the 7 pieces in STM. This concept has direct relevance to teaching. Memory experiments have helped develop this theory.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0pt;"><span style="padding: 0in; border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in;">Problems with the Two Store Model <span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">: <span style="padding: 0in; border: 1pt windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in;">It does little to explain automatic or habitual processes that almost operate at an unconscious or autonomic level. Examples could be commuting to work or riding a bicycle. Also, it is unclear how information gets from STM to LTM. ====<span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 200%; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin;"> B.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">     Stage Theory ==== <p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Based on the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin, it is supposed that information is handled in three distinct stages.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">1) Sensory Memory Stage

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The biological sensors of our body are triggered and then the information is relayed through our nerves to the brain where it must either be processed immediately or ignored. Approximate sensory memory is about 1/2 a second, shorter for vision, longer for hearing.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">2) Short Term Memory Stage

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">(Also known as Short Term Memory) We exist primarily in this state, dealing with the immediate and near-term moments. With its operation we can pay attention to our thoughts, the world around us or both simultaneously. Nonetheless, it is a short-term memory stage of variable length and thus we can only store a very finite amount of information in it before the information is stored in the third stage, long term memory, or discarded. If an experience or stimulus can be organized into something that relates to a previous experience, it is more likely to be recalled in the future.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">3) Long Term Memory

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Long Term Memory involves the storage and recall of past experiences. Some types of recall will be immediate (the name of your best friend) and others will require a bit more time until the information 'arrives' – i.e. the name of your first 'Best Friend Forever' in elementary school or the best way to get from A-B in a town you've last been in 10 years ago.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Information processing theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. This perspective equates the mind to a computer, which is responsible for analyzing information from the environment. According to the standard information-processing model for mental development, the mind’s machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in, working memory for actively manipulating information, and long term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The theory emphasizes a continuous pattern of development, in contrast with Cognitive Developmental theorists such as Jean Piaget that thought development occurred in stages. Beginning in the 1950s, a major change occurred in the field of Psychology that has come to be known as the Cognitive Revolution.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The cognitive revolution took form as what is now known as “Cognitive Psychology”. This field of psychology had freed itself from the behaviorist views that were dominant in the 1950s. It wanted to look at the “interior” mental processes, rather than the observable “exterior” views that behaviorism held. This revolution had a huge impact on theory and research in the field of psychology, as well as many other disciplines, such as human-computer interaction, human factors and ergonomics. Overall, information-processing models helped reestablish internal thought processes as a legitimate area of scientific research.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Within this model, humans are routinely compared to computers. This comparison is used as a means of better understanding the way information is processed and stored in the human mind. Therefore, when analyzing what actually develops within this model, the more specific comparison is between the human brain and computers. Computers were introduced to the study of development and provided a new way of studying intelligence (Lachman, 1979) and “added further legitimacy to the scientific study of the mind” (Goodwin, 2005, p. 411).

Criticisms‍‍ about Information Processing:
<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Models based upon Information Processing Theory take a somewhat simplistic view of cognitive processing, with information processing being viewed as a largely linear process. This model does not take into account simultaneous or parallel processing. Another example where the linear model, which suggests rehearsal is required to encode information in long term memory, is likely faulty occurs in cases of trauma, where information can be encoded automatically and without rehearsal due to a single exposure to traumatic stimuli. ‍‍The metaphor of the computer is off-putting to many, who dislike comparing human beings to machines. Additionally, no current computer program can truly simulate the full range of human cognition.‍‍

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Computer constructed models that are based upon this theory are highly complex and again cannot take into account all nuances of human thought despite their complexity. Information Processing Theory does not account for fundamental developmental changes, or changes to the "hardware" of the brain. For example, how do humans gain the ability to utilize representational thought utilizing language? How do people develop "formal operations" thinking, such as abstract logical or social thinking when they previously thought in "concrete" ‍‍terms?‍‍

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">There is an excessive focus on internal cognitive processes, with little attention being paid to environmental influences or the nature of the external stimuli the individual is exposed to. Additionally, the impact of emotions or behaviors on cognitive processing or interpretation is not sufficiently included in this model. For example, the information processing model does not consider how an individual can process stimuli differently if they are angry versus if they are in a calm state. The information processing model is described as being universal, with little attention being paid to individual differences or cultural differences.

Implications for Instruction
<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The information processing model provides four important implications for improving learning and instruction.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9;"> ·<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">         <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The first is that memory stores are extremely limited in both sensory and working memory.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9;"> ·<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">         <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">A second implication is that relevant prior knowledge facilitates encoding and retrieval processes.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9;"> ·<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">         <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">A third implication is that automated information processing increases cognitive efficiency by reducing information processing demands.

<p style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; mso-outline-level: 3; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> ·<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">        <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">A fourth implication is that learning strategies improve information processing because learners are more efficient and process information at a deeper level (Pressley & Harris, 2006; Pressley & McDonald-Wharton, 1997).

<p style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; mso-outline-level: 3; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-outline-level: 4; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Input-based instruction: 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ellis (2012) defines input-based instruction as an instruction that “involves the manipulation of the input that learners are exposed to or are required to process”. There are different forms of input-based instruction:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">One form of input-based instruction takes the form of VanPatten’s model of input processing and its pedagogical spinoff Processing Instruction (PI) (e.g., Lee & VanPatten, 2003; VanPatten, 1993, 1996, 2002). In this type of instruction learners are pushed to process input by being asked to show that they have understood the meaning of a target feature in input by providing a non-verbal or minimally verbal response such as choosing between two pictures while listening to a sentence that describes one of the pictures (Ellis, 2012). PI is composed of two main stages:


 * 1) <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Explicit information stage providing an explanation regarding target structure

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Another way to implement input-based instruction more pertinent to the study is to manipulate the input in some way in order to make some target features more noticeable to learners. This type of input-based instruction usually takes the form of textual enhancement or input enrichment, also addressed in this study. Both techniques can be considered as focus on form instruction because they aim at drawing learners’ attention to linguistic targets while they are primarily engaged in meaning comprehension. <span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Long (1991) conceptualized focus on form as a kind of instruction that “overtly draws students’ attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication”. The interest in focus on form instruction (also known as form-focused instruction) was raised in 1990s as a result of research findings that suggested that exposure to input alone though necessary is not enough and some kind of formal intervention is needed for learners to reach advanced levels of target-like competence. <span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-size: 12pt; font-weight: normal; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This has been criticized on the basis that there is no clear definition of i+1, and that factors other than structural difficulty (such as interest or presentation) can affect whether input is actually turned into intake. The concept has been quantified, however, in vocabulary acquisition research; Nation reviews various studies which indicate that about 98% of the words in running text should be previously known in order for <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> extensive reading<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> to be effective.
 * 1) <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Structured input activities aimed at pushing learners away from inefficient and incorrect processing strategies (VanPatten, 1996, 2004. For a detailed description of PI see Wong, 2004a, 2004b.)

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In his Input Hypothesis, Krashen proposes that language acquisition takes place only when learners receive input just beyond their current level of L2 competence. He termed this level of input “i+1.”

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">   However, in contrast to emergentist and connectionist theories, he follows the innate approach by applying Chomsky’s <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Government and binding theory<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> and concept of <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Universal grammar<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> (UG) to second-language acquisition. He does so by proposing a Language Acquisition Device that uses L2 input to define the parameters of the L2, within the constraints of UG, and to increase the L2 proficiency of the learner.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In addition, Krashen (1982)’s Affective Filter Hypothesis holds that the acquisition of a second language is halted if the leaner has a high degree of anxiety when receiving input. According to this concept, a part of the mind filters out L2 input and prevents uptake by the learner, if the learner feels that the process of SLA is threatening. As mentioned earlier, since input is essential in Krashen’s model, this filtering action prevents acquisition from progressing.

===<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Corollaries of the input/comprehension hypothesis: === <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 31.5pt;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> 1.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">    <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Talking (output) is not practicing

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Krashen stresses yet again that speaking in the <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> target language<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> does not result in language acquisition. Although speaking can indirectly assist in language acquisition, the ability to speak is not the cause of language learning or acquisition. Instead, <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> comprehensible output<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> is the result of language acquisition.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 13.5pt; line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0in; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: .25in 27.0pt 31.5pt;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> 2.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">    <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">When enough comprehensible input is provided, i+1 is present

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; tab-stops: .25in;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">That is to say, that if language models and teachers provide enough comprehensible input, then the structures that acquirers are ready to learn will be present in that input.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; tab-stops: .25in;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">According to Krashen, this is a better method of developing grammatical accuracy than direct grammar teaching.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Instead, students will acquire the language in a natural order by receiving comprehensible input.
 * 1) <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The teaching order is not based on the natural order

===<span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Applications in second language teaching === <p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Beginning level


 * <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Class time is filled with comprehensible oral input


 * <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Teachers must modify their speech so that it is comprehensible


 * <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Demands for speaking (output) are low; students are not forced to speak until ready


 * <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Grammar instruction is only included for students high school age and older

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Intermediate level


 * <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Sheltered subject-matter teaching that uses modified academic texts to provide comprehensible input.


 * <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Sheltered subject matter teaching is not for beginners or native speakers of the <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> target language<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">.


 * <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In sheltered instruction classes, the focus is on the meaning, and not the form.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Comprehensible Input: 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Stephen Krashen (1982, 1985) termed “comprehensible input.” Comprehensible input is that input which is slightly beyond the current level of competence of the language learner.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">If i is the language learners current level of competence in the foreign language, then i + 1 is the next immediate step along the development continuum. Therefore, if the goal is to assist the language learner progress in their task, it is essential to provide the student/learner with comprehensible input [i +1]. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Language is not “soaked up.” The learner must understand the message that is conveyed. <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-outline-level: 4; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Output-based instruction: 

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In the 1980s, Canadian SLA researcher <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Merrill Swain<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> advanced the output hypothesis, that meaningful output is as necessary to language learning as meaningful input. However, most studies have shown little if any correlation between learning and quantity of output. Today, most scholars contend that small amounts of meaningful output are important to language learning, but primarily because the experience of producing language leads to more effective processing of input.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In contrast to input-oriented approaches to L2 acquisition, there are some researchers who allocate more positive and causal role to output in developing L2 system. These researchers do not deny the essential role of input in L2 acquisition. They do, however, reject the view that input alone is sufficient for language acquisition and gives rise to the development of linguistic system (e.g., Krashen, 1985; Schwartz, 1993, Izumi, 2002; Izumi & Bigelow, 2000; Izumi et al., 1999; Swain, 1995; Swain & Lapkin, 1995; Toth, 2006). Swain (1985, 1995, 2000, 2005), outlining her output hypothesis, states that output is as essential as input in developing L2 knowledge to high levels of target-like precision.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Swain (1985) claims that output “pushed” learners from the “semantic processing” required for comprehend input to the “syntactic processing” needed for encoding meaning. Furthermore, Swain (1985) argues that producing the target language may serve as “the trigger that forces the learner to pay attention to the means of expression needed in order to successfully convey his or her own intended meaning”. One important function of output, among others, according to Swain (1995, 2005) is helping learners notice the gap between their linguistic resources and the target language system.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The debate over the role of output in L2 acquisition revolves around whether it plays a primary or secondary role. There are empirical studies that shed some light on the issue. Most of these have compared the effects of some type of input practice (often within VanPatten’s PI framework) to output-based instruction requiring learners to produce meaningful output. However, the results of these empirical studies are divergent and inconclusive. Most of these studies provided evidence that both input-based and output-based instruction lead to L2 development. Nonetheless, it is possible to classify these studies into three categories, namely studies that:


 * 1) <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Indicate input-based and output-based instructions are equally effective in promoting L2 knowledge (e.g., Farley, 2001b; Erlam, Loewen, and Philp, 2009)


 * 1) <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Provide evidence for the advantage of input-based over output-based instruction (e.g., Benati, 2005; Farley, 2001a; Lee and Benati, 2006)


 * 1) <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Suggest the superiority of output-based over input-based instruction (e.g., Allen, 2000; Toth, 2006; Morgan-Short and Bowden, 2006)

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Erlam et al. (2009) explored the effects of input-based and output-based instruction on the acquisition of implicit and explicit knowledge of English indefinite article ‘a’. Output-based instruction was operationalized via a meaning-focused presentation/practice/production (PPP) format. During the presentation stage, the learners were provided with explicit instruction about the target form. During the presentation stage, learners practiced the use of target form in a controlled meaningful context.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Finally, during the production stage, learners produced the target forms in a free written task. Input-based instruction was operationalized based on PI model. The results indicated that both instructional groups significantly outperformed the control group that received no instruction and improved their implicit and explicit knowledge of the target form. Similarly, Toth (2006) examined the role of input and output in the acquisition of L2 Spanish morphosyntax by comparing PI (as a form of input-based instruction) to instruction where input and output occurred in a communicative, teacher-led classroom setting. The target grammar item was Spanish anti-causative se.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The results indicated that while both groups progressed equally on a grammaticality judgment task, the output group outperformed the input group in a controlled production task. In contrast, Benati (2001) investigated the effects of PI and output-based grammar instruction on the acquisition of a morphological feature of Italian future tense and indicated that the PI group outperformed the output-based group in an interpretation task while both groups made equal gains in a production task. In a laboratory study, Morgan-Short and Bowden (2006) explored the effects of input-based instruction in the form of PI and meaningful output-based instruction on the interpretation and production of Spanish preverbal direct object pronouns.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Participants received treatments in two instructional groups designated as input-based and output-based instruction and were compared with a control group. While input-based instruction group had to interpret the target structure to complete the activities, the participants that received output-based instruction were required to produce direct object pronouns to complete the activities. The results indicated that both groups had measurable gains above the control group from pre-tests to post-tests. The researchers thus concluded, “[N]ot only input-based but also output-based instruction can lead to linguistic development”.

= Comprehensible output: = <p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">According to research, learners need opportunities to practice language at their level of English language competency. This practice with English-speaking peers is called ''Comprehensible Output. ''Many researchers feel that comprehensible output is nearly as important as input. Cooperative learning groups are one way for new learners of English to receive plenty of understandable input and output. Here are some reasons why. A small group setting allows for more comprehensible input because the teacher or classmates modify or adapt the message to the listener’s needs.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">   The comprehensible output (CO) hypothesis states that we acquire language when we attempt to transmit a message but fail and have to try again. Eventually, we arrive at the correct form of our utterance, our conversational partner finally understands, and we acquire the new form we have produced. The originator of the comprehensible output hypothesis, Merrill Swain (Swain, 1985), does not claim that CO is responsible for all or even most of our language competence. Rather, the claim is that "sometimes, under some conditions, output facilitates second language learning in ways that are different form, or enhance, those of input" (Swain and Lapkin, 1995, p. 371). A look at the data, however, shows that even this weak claim is hard to support.

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Scarcity Argument 

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">A problem all output hypotheses have is that output is surprisingly rare (Krashen, 1994). In the case of CO, the problem is especially severe. A recent confirmation of the scarcity of output is Ellis, Tanaka, and Yamazaki (1994), who examined vocabulary acquisition under three conditions, tasks in which EFL students heard

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">(1) "premodified" input (input recorded from a task performed with a native speaker and non-native speaker who could request clarification),

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">(2) interactionally modified input (the non-native students could interact with the native speaker), or

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">(3)   unmodified input (input recorded from a native speaker doing the task with another native speaker). Of interest to us here is the finding that "of the 42 learners in the IM (interactionally modified) group, only seven engaged in meaning negotiation. The others simply listened".

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Pica (1988) concluded that instances of comprehensible output were "relatively infrequent".

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Acquisition without Output 

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">There are numerous studies that confirm that we can develop extremely high levels of language and literacy competence without any language production at all (Krashen, 1994). Ellis (1995) is an additional analysis of Ellis et. al. (1994), discussed above, and provides another instance of acquisition without output. The "premodified" group, a group that did no speaking at all, made modest but clear gains in vocabulary, gaining, in fact, more words per minute than the group that interacted with the native speaker. Nobuyoshi and Ellis (1993) claim to have provided data showing that comprehensible output results in actual improvement.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Van den Brandon's subjects (Van den Brandon, 1997, discussed earlier) who participated in sessions that encouraged negotiation of meaning increased their output relative to a control group that did not engage in interaction, but were not superior in grammatical accuracy. Each subject, however, only had seven to nine minutes of interaction.

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Discomfort of Comprehensible Output 

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The CO hypothesis predicts that we acquire language when there is a communicative breakdown and we are "pushed to use alternative means to get across the message precisely, coherently, and appropriately" (Swain, 1985, pp. 248-249). In addition to the research that shows that CO is an unlikely candidate, there is additional evidence that "pushing" students to speak is unpleasant for them. When asked what aspects of foreign language classes are the most anxiety-provoking, students put "talking" at the top of the list (Young, 1990). Laughrin-Sacco (1992) reported that for students in beginning French classes, "for nearly every student ... speaking was the highest anxiety-causing activity".

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Ten "anxious" foreign language students interviewed by Price (1991) stated that their greatest source of anxiety " having to speak the target language in front of their peers". Of great interest here is the finding that another source of stress "was the frustration of not being able to communicate effectively". These results suggest that it is "pushed output," having to utilize structures they have not yet acquired, under demanding conditions that students find uncomfortable. Methods based on comprehensible output put students in this situation constantly.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This hypothesis is closely related to the <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Noticing hypothesis<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">. Swain defines three functions of output:

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.5in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo11; mso-text-indent-alt: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">       i.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">           <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Noticing function <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">: Learners encounter gaps between what they want to say and what they are able to say and so they notice what they do not know or only know partially in this language.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.5in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo11; mso-text-indent-alt: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">     ii.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">           <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Hypothesis-testing function <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">: When learners say something there is always a hypothesis underlying e.g. about grammar by uttering something. The learners test this hypothesis and receive feedback from an interlocutor. This feedback enables them, if necessary, to reprocess their hypothesis.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.5in; margin-left: 0.5in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo11; mso-text-indent-alt: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> <span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">   iii.<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">           <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Metalinguistic function <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">: Learners reflect about the language they learn and hereby the output enables them to control and internalize linguistic knowledge.

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The comprehensible output hypothesis has numerous difficulties: 

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">- Output and especially comprehensible output is too scarce to make a real contribution to linguistic competence.

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">- High levels of linguistic competence are possible without output.

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">- There is no direct evidence that comprehensible output leads to language acquisition.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In addition, there is some evidence that suggests that students do not enjoy being "pushed" to speak.

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-ascii-font-family: Cambria; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-font-family: Cambria; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Interaction Hypothesis and CO 

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The CO hypothesis is linked to what is sometimes called the "interaction hypothesis," the hypothesis that we acquire language from interacting with others. As stated in this way, the interaction hypothesis is vague.

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">A part of interaction that does not contribute to language acquisition is the output produced by the language acquirer. In addition, there is evidence that a strong version of the interaction hypothesis, one that asserts that interaction is necessary for language acquisition, is not correct. Such a hypothesis denies that acquisition can occur from reading and listening. In addition to the massive data showing that reading can promote language development, the results of Ellis et. al. (1994), discussed above, confirm that acquisition is possible without actually participating in the interaction. A weaker version of the interaction hypothesis is that interaction can be a good source of comprehensible input (Krashen, 1982).

<p class="Default" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Cambria","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Need Hypothesis and CO 

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The CO hypothesis is closely related to the "need hypothesis." I have never seen the need hypothesis discussed explicitly in print, but it is widely assumed to be true. The need hypothesis says that we acquire language only when we "need" to communicate, when we need to make ourselves understood. If this hypothesis is correct, language acquirers must be forced to speak the second language. The need hypothesis thus implies that "submersion" is good thing, in that it forces students to try to communicate. The need hypothesis is not correct. According to the input hypothesis need can be helpful when it puts the acquirer in a position to get comprehensible input.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">All the need in the world, however, will not result in language acquisition if there is no comprehensible input. In addition, interesting and comprehensible input will result in language acquisition whether need is present or not. <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Stephen Krashen<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> argues that the basic problem with all output hypotheses is that output is rare, and comprehensible output is even rarer. Even when the language acquirer does speak, they rarely make the types of adjustments that the CO hypothesis claims are useful and necessary to acquire new forms.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Another difficulty with CO is that pushing students to speak in a second language may be uncomfortable for them, raising the <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> affective filter<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> and thus hampering acquisition. When asked which aspects of foreign language learning caused them the most anxiety, students placed speaking in the foreign language at the top of the list. Methods that are based on comprehensible output frequently put acquirers in this uncomfortable position. According to <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Stephen Krashen<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">, the Need Hypothesis is incorrect. However, <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Stephen Krashen<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> does point out that need, can be helpful when it places the acquirer in a position in which he or she can receive <span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> comprehensible input<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> (CI). On the other hand, need, is useless in the absence of CI.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Wolfgang Butzkamm<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> proposes to extend Krashen's notion of comprehension. Both in natural language acquisition as well as in foreign language classrooms, in order for the learner to make progress, understanding must occur on two levels, a situational or functional and a formal or structural level. Learners must not only understand what is meant but must also understand what is quite literally said, i.e. recognize the component parts and meaning elements. Only then can we, on the basis of what we've heard and understood, risk our own sentences, i.e. sentences we might never have heard before. "For the language system to be acquired, a double transparency or double comprehension is necessary. Much of the special nature of mother-child dialogue can be seen as aiming at both levels of comprehension /transparency."

<span style="color: windowtext; line-height: 115%; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Limitations of previous research
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">As Ellis (2012) noted, the results of previous studies that compared the effects of input-based and output-based instruction with each other are mixed and inconclusive. One limitation of the previous studies is that they operationalized input-based instruction according to VanPatten’s PI model and ignored other types of input-based instruction, such as textual enhancement or input enrichment. Furthermore, due to methodological complexities involved in PI, as Morgan-Short and Bowden (2006) argue, it is impossible to determine whether the positive effects of PI is due to explicit instruction, input alone, or the combination of input and explicit instruction.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Another limitation of previous studies of input-based and output-based instruction is that there is divergence in the way output-based instruction was operationalized. For example, some studies that reported a more positive role for output in L2 development, operationalized output within a more communicative and interactional context (e.g., Toth, 2006; Erlam et al., 2009). As Ellis (2012) argues, the ultimate benefits of input-based and production-based instructions depend on the interactions that arise during instruction. Finally, as it was noted before, previous studies of textual enhancement didn’t differentiate the effect of enhanced input from enriched input. This conflation, according to Han et al. (2008), is one of the shortcomings of previous textual enhancement studies.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">To this end, we investigate the effects of input-based instruction in terms of textual enhancement and input enrichment and compare them with the effects of output-based instruction on the development of L2 knowledge. Furthermore, in order to isolate the role of explicit instruction, usually a component of input-based or output-based instruction, we formed another group that was only exposed to explicit instruction as treatment.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 13.2pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">However, it was also found that explicit instruction per se confers no significant advantage to L2 learners and should be integrated into input or output activities. With regards to output-based instruction it should be noted that because producing output as a variable cannot be completely isolated from other variables such as interlocutor’s feedback and input, we can’t confidently claim that output in and of itself lead to L2 development. The best we can say is that instruction that capitalizes on meaningful output practice is as effective as or even more effective than input-based instruction.

Passive Sentences
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Passive voice verbs are used in writing much more often than in speech, and they are used in some types of writing much more often than in others. Passives are used more in journalism (newspapers, magazines) than in fiction (novels, stories), but most journalists and fiction writers use far more active than passive sentences. However, passives are very common in all types of scientific and technical writing. Scientific articles often contain more passive than active sentences. You should not use passive voice verbs unless you have a good reason.

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Relationship between active and passive: 

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">1. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> The object of the active verb is the subject''' of the passive verb (“English” in the example sentences below). Therefore, verbs which cannot be followed by objects (intransitive verbs) cannot be used in passive voice.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">These are some common intransitive verbs: appear, arrive, come, cry, die, go, happen, occur, rain, sleep, stay, walk. These verbs cannot be used in passive voice.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">2. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The passive verb always contains a form of the auxiliary verb be'''. The form of be in the passive verb phrase corresponds to the form of the main verb in the active verb phrase (see the underlined words in the example sentences below). That is, if the active main verb is simple present tense, then a simple present tense form of be is used in the passive verb phrase; if the active main verb is -ING, then the -ING form of be is used in the passive verb phrase; and so on.

<p style="line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">3. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The main verb in a passive predicate verb phrase is always the participle''' form of the verb.

<p style="line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">4. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Some examples''' of active and passive sentences:

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">ACTIVE: They  speak  English. PASSIVE: English  is spoken.

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">ACTIVE: They were speaking  English. PASSIVE: English was being spoken.

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">ACTIVE: They will have spoken  English. PASSIVE: English will have been spoken.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">5. Perfect progressive <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> verb forms are generally used in active voice only'''. That is, these are good English sentences:

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">ACTIVE: They have been speaking English. ACTIVE: They had been speaking English. ACTIVE: They will have been speaking English.

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">But sentences like these are rarely used:

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">PASSIVE: English has been being spoken. PASSIVE: English had been being spoken. PASSIVE: English will have been being spoken.

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Cambria","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Most passive sentences do not contain an agent; all active sentences contain an agent: 

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">1. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">An agent''' is the subject of the active verb. In the example sentences above, the agent is “they” in all the active sentences; the passive sentences do not contain an agent.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">2. '''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">When a passive sentence contains an agent, it is in a prepositional phrase following the verb. For example:

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">English is spoken by them.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In the following sentences, the noun “teachers” is the agent in both sentences. “Teachers” is also the subject of the active verb, but “exams” is the subject of the passive verb.

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">ACTIVE:  Teachers  prepare exams.

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">PASSIVE: Exams are prepared  by teachers .

<p style="line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">C. You should not use passive voice unless you have a good reason. '''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Here are some good reasons for using passive voice:

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">1. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Passive voice is often used when the agent (the doer of an action; the subject of an active verb) is obvious, unknown, or unnecessary''':

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Oranges are grown in California. Toyotas are made in Japan. Her purse was stolen.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">2. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Passive voice is often used when the agent is known, but the speaker/writer doesn’t''' want to mention it:

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">She was given bad advice. A mistake has been made.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">3. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Passive voice is often used when the agent is very general such as people or somebody'''.

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">English is spoken here. The door should be locked.

<p style="line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">4. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Passive voice is often used when the speaker/writer wants to emphasize a result''':

<p style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Several thousand people were killed by the earthquake.

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">5. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Passive voice is often used when the speaker/writer wants to keep the same subject''' for two or more verbs but this would not be possible if both verbs were the same voice (active or passive).

<p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">For example, in a conversation about George, a speaker would probably use sentence a below rather than sentence b (both sentences are correct).

<p style="line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">a. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">George had several interviews before he was hired''' by a software company. b. George had several interviews before a software company hired him.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 6pt; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> ·<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">         <span style="padding: 0in; border: 1pt windowtext; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in;">The boys ate the pie.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 6pt; line-height: 200%; text-indent: -0.25in; vertical-align: baseline; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> ·<span style="font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;">         <span style="padding: 0in; border: 1pt windowtext; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in;">The pie was eaten (by the boys).

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The passive voice can also be used with modals
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