Talk:Mahsa moslemi/@comment-188.245.11.155-20130719221818

Mahsa moslemi

'''Review of related literature '''

The lexical approach to second language teaching has received interest in recent years as an



alternative to grammar-based approaches. The lexical approach concentrates on developing



learners' proficiency with lexis, or words and word combinations. It is based on the idea that



an important part of language acquisition is the ability to comprehend and produce lexical

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">phrases as unanalyzed wholes, or "chunks," and that these chunks become the raw data by

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">which learners perceive patterns of language traditionally thought of as grammar (Lewis,

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">1993, p. 95). Instruction focuses on relatively fixed expressions that occur frequently in

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">spoken language, such as, "I'm sorry," "I didn't mean to make you jump," or "That will never

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">happen to me," rather than on originally created sentences (Lewis, 1997a, p. 212). This digest

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">provides an overview of the methodological foundations underlying the lexical approach and

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   the pedagogical implications suggested by them.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 11.25pt 0in 7.5pt; line-height: normal; mso-outline-level: 4;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">A New Role for Lexis '''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Michael Lewis (1993), who coined the term lexical approach, suggests the following:

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 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Lexis is the basis of language.
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Lexis is misunderstood in language teaching because of the assumption that grammar is the basis of language and that mastery of the grammatical system is a prerequisite for effective communication.

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 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The key principle of a lexical approach is that "language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar."

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 11.25pt 0in 7.5pt; line-height: normal; mso-outline-level: 4;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Types of Lexical Units '''
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">One of the central organizing principles of any meaning-centered syllabus should be lexis.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The lexical approach makes a distinction between vocabulary—traditionally understood as a

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   stock of individual words with fixed meanings—and lexis, which includes not only the

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">single words but also the word combinations that we store in our mental lexicons. Lexical

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">approach advocates argue that language consists of meaningful chunks that, when combined,

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   produce continuous coherent text, and only a minority of spoken sentences are entirely novel

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">creations.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The role of formulaic, many-word lexical units have been stressed in both first and second

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">language acquisition research. (See Richards & Rodgers, 2001, for further discussion.) They

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">have been referred to by many different labels, including "gambits" (Keller, 1979), "speech

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">formulae" (Peters, 1983), "lexicalized stems" (Pawley & Syder, 1983), and "lexical phrases"

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   (Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992). The existence and importance of these lexical units has been

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   discussed by a number of linguists. For example, Cowie (1988) argues that the existence of

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">lexical units in a language such as English serves the needs of both native English speakers

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   and English language learners, who are as predisposed to store and reuse them as they are to

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   generate them from scratch. The widespread "fusion of such expressions, which appear to

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">satisfy the individual's communicative needs at a given moment and are later reused, is one

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   means by which the public stock of formulae and composites is continuously enriched" (p.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   136).

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Lewis (1997b) suggests the following taxonomy of lexical items:

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 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">words (e.g., book, pen)
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">polywords (e.g., by the way, upside down)
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">collocations, or word partnerships (e.g., community service, absolutely convinced)
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">institutionalized utterances (e.g., I'll get it; We'll see; That'll do; If I were you . . .; Would you like a cup of coffee?)
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">sentence frames and heads (e.g., That is not as . . . as you think; The fact/suggestion/problem/danger was . . .) and even text frames (e.g., In this paper we explore . . .; Firstly . . .; Secondly . . .; Finally . . .)

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Within the lexical approach, special attention is directed to collocations and expressions that

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">include institutionalized utterances and sentence frames and heads. As Lewis maintains

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">"instead of words, we consciously try to think of collocations, and to present these in

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">expressions. Rather than trying to break things into ever smaller pieces, there is a conscious

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   effort to see things in larger, more holistic, ways" (1997a, p. 204).

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Collocation is "the readily observable phenomenon whereby certain words co-occur in

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">natural text with greater than random frequency" (Lewis, 1997a, p. 8). Furthermore,

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   collocation is not determined by logic or frequency, but is arbitrary, decided only by

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   linguistic convention. Some collocations are fully fixed, such as "to catch a cold," "rancid

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">butter," and "drug addict," while others are more or less fixed and can be completed in a

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   relatively small number of ways, as in the following examples:

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 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">blood / close / distant / near(est) relative
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">learn by doing / by heart / by observation / by rote / from experience
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">badly / bitterly / deeply / seriously / severely hurt
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 11.25pt 0in 7.5pt; line-height: normal; mso-outline-level: 4;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Lexis in Language Teaching and Learning '''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">In the lexical approach, lexis in its various types is thought to play a central role in language

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">teaching and learning. Nattinger (1980, p. 341) suggests that teaching should be based on the

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   idea that language production is the piecing together of ready-made units appropriate for a

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   particular situation. Comprehension of such units is dependent on knowing the patterns to

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">predict in different situations. Instruction, therefore, should center on these patterns and the

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">ways they can be pieced together, along with the ways they vary and the situations in which

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">they occur.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Activities used to develop learners' knowledge of lexical chains include the following:

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Intensive and extensive listening and reading in the target language.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">First and second language comparisons and translation—carried out chunk-for-chunk, rather than word-for-word—aimed at raising language awareness.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Repetition and recycling of activities, such as summarizing a text orally one day and again a few days later to keep words and expressions that have been learned active.

<p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Guessing the meaning of vocabulary items from context.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Noticing and recording language patterns and collocations.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Working with dictionaries and other reference tools.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: FA;">
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Working with language corpuses created by the teacher for use in the classroom or accessible on the Internet—such as the <span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; text-underline: none;"> British National Corpus (http://thetis.bl.uk/BNCbib)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> or <span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; text-underline: none;"> COBUILD Bank of English (http://titania.cobuild.collins.co.uk)<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">—to research word partnerships, preposition usage, style, and so on.

'''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal;">'''<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: FA;">

'''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Taking advantage of L1-L2 contrasts of formulaic expressions as a language teaching

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">technique may have been employed quite frequently by language teachers and by language

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   learners. Despite such a popularity of use, there has never been any explicit effort to

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">introduce a new teaching approach based on comparisons between L1 and L2 formulaic

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">utterances. This may be due to the notorious consequences of employing L1 in learning L2

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">proposed by behaviorists. The argument is that despite such a belief, L1 can be used in

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">teaching and learning L2 as a highly useful support. When one does not know an L2 form,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">referring back to one’s L1 should not be barred; rather attempts must be made in order to

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">render such recourse a positive and helpful one.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Through equipping learners with L2 equivalents for L2 formulaic expressions, which is

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   Believed to happen through CLA, learners have a chance to fall on their L1, but, this time,

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   they do not equal literal translations of L2 forms with their L1; rather, they have the right

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">equivalent at their disposal to resort to. From CLA perspective, no matter how similar or

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">different languages are, and without being worried about transfer and interference of L1, L2

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">equivalents are taken as units of language acquisition which results in fluent mastery of a

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   second language. Classrooms can turn into places in which learners constantly look for

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">normal and native-like rather than superficial equivalents to the meanings they want to

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">express in their L1. Teachers can sensitize their learners towards the presence of L2

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   equivalents for L1 formulaic expressions which represent higher levels of normality and are

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   closer to what native speakers would choose given the same situation. Teachers should

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">encourage learners to gather as much L1-L2 formulaic <span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">contrasts as possible and motivate them

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">to use them in their oral and written productions, as a <span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> <span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">way to expand their learners' knowledge

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">and to stabilize such linguistic pieces within learners' repertoire of native-like knowledge.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">'''<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">   TRANSLEXEME VERSUS TRANSLEXICON '''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">'''<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

'''

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">The backbone of a contrastive lexical approach is to take formulaic expressions and the main

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">building blocks of language, and the fact that comparing these formulas between two languages

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">provides learners with the opportunity to master a native-like mastery of the target language.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Such an approach involves two positions with regards to the comparison of formulas.

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">Translexeme is defined as L1 stereotypical equivalents for a pragmeme which can almost always

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">account for all its pragmatic actions. On the other hand a translexem is the one best L2

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">translexemes in CLA as <span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">economical formulaic equivalents which obviates the need for contextual clues, literary <span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">translexicon better serves teaching language and literature.

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"><span style="color: black; line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11.5pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">

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<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt; text-align: center; line-height: 200%;">'''<span style="line-height: 200%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: FA;">Methodological issues '''

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<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; line-height: normal; -ms-text-autospace:; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: FA;">From my point view, the examination of lexical data is related to the analysis of specific <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: FA;">purposes, like here teaching translation. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;"> Lexical findings are examined in context. This means  <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">that linguistic input is obtained by observing word combinations that are meaningful in the  <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">subject and genre domains .I should choose a class then teach   translation by one of the  <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">methods of CLA. If I am finding a new application, then by the help of this application can  <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;">teach in the class to see the result.

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